the Human Body

The human body… It’s seems like it would be an easy topic to explain, simply because, it’s basically who I am, however this is not really the case. Here is basically what I know: I am a human being, with two arms, two legs, a head, a neck, 10 fingers & 9.5 finger nails, 10 toes & 10 toenails. I have approximately 206 bones in my body. I have a heart, two kidneys, a brain, a stomach, a pancreas, etc. I have a urinary system, a nervous system, and some other systems that are very important in living. Here is some information that I have learned in my previous years as a student, some common knowledge, and years of watching funny doctor shows. 

The stomach is a very important organ. Without it, we wouldn’t be able to digest our food.    Here is a diagram of a human stomach.

Another important part of the human body is the brain. Without the brain, people are pretty much nothing. When people’s brains are not working or inactive, they are called brain dead. This is extremely sad, because it’s basically like the person is dead. There are many different parts of the brain. Different parts of the brain control different functions of the brain. For example, a person who is more artistic is said to have more activity in one part of the brain. 

Here is a diagram of a human brain.

One of the most important systems in the human body is the urinary system. Without this, waste wouldn’t be able to be excreted, and that would definitely not be good. The kidney filters blood and other items and cleans the blood while excreting urine (or waste.) The urine travels through the ureter into the urinary bladder, and the urine is released during urination through the urethra. When people have kidney failure or kidney problems, they have to go on dialysis. Dialysis is a machine that cleans your blood for you. Although we have two kidneys, we can survive with just one kidney. This is why, sometimes when a loved one or friend needs a kidney; a transplant of their kidney can be given to the person in need. However, in order for this to happen, their kidneys need to match. 

Here is a diagram of the human urinary system.

However, that is basically all that I really know. It’s sad because the human body is so complex and fascinating- but luckily the interweb has a lot of interesting and helpful information. (Below is some facts that blew my MIND!!! (figuratively of course) that I found on this very informative website…)

“Nerve impulses to and from the brain travel as fast as 170 miles per hour.”

“The brain is much more active at night than during the day.”

“Scientists say the higher your I.Q. the more you dream.”

“80% of the brain is water.”

“The largest internal organ is the small intestine.”

“The human body is estimated to have 60,000 miles of blood vessels.”

“The surface area of a human lung is equal to a tennis court.”

“Scientists have counted over 500 different liver functions.”

 

Genetics in My Family

            Genetics is extremely interesting. Before we started this unit, I had no idea how genetic traits were really decided. I knew that my sister looked like my dad, and that I looked like my mom. My brother, on the other hand was kind of a mix between both of them. However, genetics is more than just what color your skin, your hair, and your eyes are.

            By observing some simple features of my family members, I discovered some interesting information about my family. Everyone in my family has unattached earlobes, which doesn’t come as a surprise because attached earlobes is a recessive gene. However, I can’t say for certain what the genotype is, because we could either be homozygous dominant or heterozygous. It is more probable that everyone in my family is homozygous dominant, since no one has attached ear lobes, but it’s not definite.

            The information I found when I asked every member of my family to roll their tongue was very interesting. When I asked my mom, she had no problem with this task (like me.) However, my brother, sister, and dad tried, tried, and failed… From this information, I know that in order for me to be able to roll my tongue, my dad, my sister, and my brother must be homozygous recessive because tongue roll is a dominant gene. My mom and I are both heterozygous because some of my siblings can roll their tongues, and some can’t.

            For the hitchhikers thumb task, my results were similar to the information found in the tongue roll test. My dad, sister, and brother all had non-hitchhikers thumbs, while my mom and I had hitchhikers thumbs. Therefore, my dad, sister, and brother must be homozygous dominant, since hitchhikers thumb is a recessive gene. Thus my mom and I are heterozygous.

            For the widow’s peak test, my results were slightly different. My dad and my sister have widow peaks, while my brother, mom and I don’t have widow’s peak. Therefore, since widow’s peak is dominant, my dad and sister are heterozygous, thus my brother, mom, and I are homozygous recessive.

            It was interesting to see that genetics goes further than things like the color of your skin, eyes, and hair. My mother and I shared the same results, and we also look very similar. My dad and my sister also look alike, and they also share the same results. However, my brother shared more of the same results with my father, but he looks more like my mother than my father.

            On another note, I’ve noticed that a lot of my male family members have cleft chins. All the males on my mom side of the family have cleft chins (which form when they are about sixteen.) My father has a cleft chin, while I’m pretty sure his dad and his brother don’t have cleft chins. Cleft chin is a recessive gene. For this reason, I believe that my dad is homozygous recessive, and my mom is heterozygous. Therefore, I think once my brother (12) matures, he will develop a cleft chin.

*note to reader: sister referred to in this post is my older sister. I have a younger sister, unfortunately though she was unavailable for testing.

Sources (gene dominant/recessive):

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earlobe 

http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/40827.aspx

http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/jiwilliams/Human_Traits.htm 

http://www.koshland-science-museum.org/teachers/Inventory_of_Your_Traits.pdf

PGD... what the media is calling designer babies

Designer Babies. Catchy, interesting, mind-blowing are some of the first words that came to my mind when I learned that babies characteristics and features could be genetically altered. A super baby. However, I soon learned that the real name of my topic was not Designer Babies, or Super Baby or anything like that, it was actually PGD- Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis. PGD is nothing like designing exactly what you want your baby to look like. PGD is used for couples who have diseases that could be passed down to their child, they aren’t trying to pick what color eyes he/she is going to have, they are trying to make sure that their baby doesn’t come into the world with a serious disease.

Once an embryo has 8 cells, one or two cells are removed with micromanipulation technique. Through genetic analysis, parents will know whether or not the embryo has specific disease-producing mutations. If the embryo contains cells that show that the baby will have a disease, the parents may choose to terminate the pregnancy and try again.

Pictures of an Embryo Biopsy

Sex-linked disorders, single gene defects, and chromosomal disorders are the main groups of diseases; people suffering from these diseases should use PGD when trying for a baby in order to ensure their baby won’t be born with their illness. For example, people suffering from serious illnesses such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, Tay-Sachs disease, Rett syndrome, sickle cell anemia, use PGD with IVF- In vitro fertilization in order to ensure that their child won’t be born with their illness. Furthermore, PGD can also ensure children won’t be born with Down Syndrome, mental retardation, muscular dystrophy, Gaucher’s disease, and more.

PGS- Preimplantation genetic screening, is when an embryo from a supposed normal couple is checked to make sure that the child won’t have any diseases, disorders, syndromes, etc. PGS can lead to termination of pregnancy. Older women who are trying to have a baby, couples with history of recurrent pregnancy loss, couples with repeated IVF failure, or for mothers who partner suffer with severe male factor infertility should use PGS. The older woman get, the more likely they are to have a child with Down syndrome. PGS is viewed as immoral, because it can determine the sex of the baby, which can lead to termination if it’s the unfavorable sex.

Graph of "Frequency of Down Syndrome Per Maternal Age"

The Reproductive Genetics Institute uses Polar Body analysis & Embryo analysis for PGD. PGD is very expensive, and can cost thousands of dollars, however can also help prevent the spread of disease onto the next generation. 

Sex Selection Program Video  (video on web site)

The DNA sequence of the extracted cells of the embryo allows doctors to see if the embryo has a specific disease. This is extremely helpful for couples that have a history of disease. However, PGD with IVF can be used to determine the sex of a baby. Sex selection using PGD with IVF can be extremely expensive, costing in some cases around twenty thousand dollars. Many people use this method in order to have almost a 100% guarantee of the sex of their baby. In recent years however, sex selection using PGD with IVF is beginning to be looked upon as immoral and unethical. One of the developers of PGD, Dr. Mark Hughes, doesn’t like that PGD is being used for sex selection, and that PGD was supposed to be used in order to prevent diseases from passing from parent to child.

News Article: China grapples with legacy of its 'missing girls' 

Sex selection has become a highly debated topic because of its unethical use. The use of cheap sex selection equipment in countries such as China has resulted in an unbalanced sex ratio. Population expert Professor Chu Junhong said, "Prenatal sex selection was probably the primary cause, if not the sole cause, for the continuous rise of the sex ratio at birth." In 2002- 300/820 women had abortions in a central China village. More than 1/3 of them said they were trying to select their baby’s sex. Another statistic shows that in 1999, more than 70% of abortions were female. The huge amount of abortions of girls in China has resulted in only seven of the twenty-nine provinces of China are within the world’s average sex ratio.

 (^^statistics from the article)

Web Sources:

http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/273415-overview

http://www.infertile.com/infertility-treatments/pgd.htm

http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/agar.html

http://www.reproductivegenetics.com/pgd.html

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5953508/ns/world_news/

http://www.fertility-docs.com/fertility_gender.phtml

Picture Sources:

Graph- http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/273415-overview

Embryo Biopsy- http://www.hfi-ivf.com/html/pgd.html

Laron Syndrome: the Light at the End of the Tunnel for Cancer Prevention

Reflection from "Short Ecuadorians hold anti-aging secret"

I found this article extremely interesting. The article talked about the relation of the mutation of the growth hormone receptor that causes Laron Syndrome to the prevention of cancer and diabetes. It kind of made me happy that although we have this terrible disease in which people can't grow, because of this disease we could also potentially cure cancer! The mutation that causes Laron Syndrome can possibly help prevent cancer and diabetes.

By studying 100 people who suffer from Laron Syndrome for 22 years, Jamie Guevara-Aguirre has found an interesting relation of the mutation of the growth hormone receptor that causes Laron Syndrome to the amount of IGF1 a body has. In the article, it says, "High levels of IGF1 have been implicated in cancer and diabetes in previous studies, and low levels have been found to cause increased longevity in everything from yeast and worms to mice." People who have Laron Syndrome have low levels of IGF1. They don't suffer from diabetes or cancer, however their life span is the same as normal people or even shorter. I found it interesting that although they have this terrible disease that limits their growth, their chance of getting cancer or diabetes is extremely slim. Furthermore, even if they are obese, their chance of getting cancer or diabetes is still almost impossible. This leads to the possibility that scientists could figure a way to use these mutated gene receptors to prevent cancer and diabetes from the studies of people with Laron Syndrome.

I found this article very hopeful because it gives me hope that cancer can be prevented, and someday will be preventable. This article really relates to our study of cancer and the cell cycle because in Laron Syndrome, the mutation of more than one growth hormone receptor can lead to cancer. We have been learning about how mutations in the cell cycle can cause cancer. This article showed us a specific case of mutations leading to cancer, and it really made me realize how important and interesting the information we are learning truly is.

Through studying the mutation that leads to Laron Syndrome, Valter Longo said that using drugs or controlled diets could also help to prevent cancer and diabetes in this article. Another interesting fact I found in that article, was that 1/3 of the about 300 people with Laron Syndrom in the world live in the Ecuadorean Andes.

Sources:

"Short Ecuadorians hold anti-aging secret"-Jennifer Welsh

"Dwarfism Offers Longevity Clues"-Gautam Naik

Picture source: 

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703961104576148422547757048.html

"Drink. Pee. Repeat:" the Analysis of Bladder Cancer

Hi! Bladder Cancer is an extremely complicated and interesting cancer. In the following essay, I will explain the basics of Bladder Cancer, the causes, symptoms, diagnostic tests, treatments, stages, and the biology of Bladder Cancer. My information was obtained from the following sources:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001517
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/bladder/Patient
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bladder-cancer/DS00177
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/bladder_cancer/article_em.htm
http://www.medicinenet.com/bladder_cancer/article.htm
http://www.urologychannel.com/bladdercancer/overview-of-bladder-cancer.shtml
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/bladdercancer.html
http://blcwebcafe.org/
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/bladder-cancer
http://www.acancer.net/bladder_cancer/stage1.php
http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Orphan_designation/2009/10/WC500006117.pdf
http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/type/bladder-cancer/about/types-of-bladder-cancer
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/path/urinary/uroth4.cfm
BSCS Biology Textbook
(No copy-right intended!)

Bladder Cancer
Shelby Marcus
2/14/11

Bladder Cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world. Every year more than 60,000 people in the United States are diagnosed with bladder cancer. Of those diagnosed, 13,000 will die. Tumors are created when cells become mutated and begin to multiply extremely fast. The new cells form tumors. The tumors either become so big that they takes over other tissues and take their resources, or metastasize, which means travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The three main kinds of bladder cancers are Transitive Cell Carcinoma, Adenocarcinoma, and Squamous Cell Carcinoma.
The most common kind of bladder cancer is Transitive Cell Carcinoma. 90% of Americans with Bladder Cancer suffer from Transitive Cell Carcinoma. The biggest cause of TCC is smoking. Fortunately, Transitive Cell Carcinoma is treatable and not life-threatening because it is a superficial cancer. TCC is a superficial cancer because it is in the lining of the bladder and doesn’t penetrate, spread, or invades past the lining of the bladder.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma is a very rare kind of bladder cancer. 3%-8% of Bladder Cancers are Squamous Cell Carcinomas. SCC is an invasive cancer meaning it goes through metastasis, spreading and invading throughout the body, most likely through the lymphatic system. Invasive bladder cancers are extremely hard to cure because they spread throughout the body, making it harder to eradicate. SCC forms thin like cells in the tissue of the surface of the skin. The biggest cause of SCC is long-term irritation, inflammation, and infection. In the Middle East and Africa, the infection of the parasite Schistosomiasis can also cause SCC.
Adenocarcinoma is the rarest kind of Bladder Cancer. 1% to 2% of Bladder Cancers are Adenocarcinoma. Like SCC, Adenocarcinoma is very hard to treat since it’s invasive, which makes the eradication of the cancer extremely hard. After long-term irritation, Adenocarcinoma is formed in the glandular cells of the bladder.
TCC is considered a superficial cancer because it is in the lining of the bladder. SCC and Adenocarcinoma are invasive cancers because they invade and spread throughout the body. TCC is much more common and treatable, while SCC and Adenocarcinoma are extremely rare and usually untreatable.
In Transitive Cell Carcinoma there are either papillary or non-papillary (sessile) tumors. Papillary tumors have a wart like appearance and are attached to a stalk. They aren’t invasive and can be easily removed. Non-papillary (sessile) tumors are harder to treat because they are invasive and can spread throughout the body through lymph nodes, etc. Papillary tumors are more common than non-papillary tumors in Transitive Cell Carcinoma.
Smoking is one of the biggest causes of Bladder Cancer. Smoking was the cause of bladder cancer for 50% of men and 30% of women who have Bladder Cancer. Exposure to carcinogens (chemicals) caused Bladder Cancer for ¼ of people. Radiation and chemotherapy can also cause Bladder Cancer. Bladder infections and irritations increase the risk of SCC. However, doesn’t increase the risk of TCC. Parasite infection can also lead to Bladder Cancer. The most common symptom of Bladder Cancer is blood in urine. Frequent urination, pain during urination, and lower pack pain are also common symptoms. There are many causes of Bladder Cancer, however Bladder Cancer isn’t usually hereditary. Bladder Cancer is caused by environmental issues, smoking, infections, that create mutations in genes.
There is no specific gene mutation that causes Bladder Cancer. Tumors are created in the bladder through considerable mutations of the genes. Usually in normal cells, when the structure of DNA undergoes mutation, tumor suppressors check the DNA to make sure it is correct, and if not, corrects it. However when tumor suppressors become mutated, they can’t check the DNA structure, and the mutated genes build up and create tumors. Furthermore, if proto-oncogenes become mutated to form oncogenes, the cell cycle can’t stop anymore and the tumor becomes bigger and bigger. The combination of mutated tumor suppressors and oncogenes create a cancerous tumor. The reason for the mutation of tumor suppressors and oncogenes is of the environmental issues, smoking, infections, etc.
There are many diagnostic tests that can determine whether someone has Bladder Cancer. One diagnostic test is an abdominal CT scan. Another is Cytoscopy where a small camera examines the inside of the bladder. A bladder biopsy can also be performed during Cytoscopy, which is when a small part of the tissue is taken away. Intravenous pyelogram (IVP,) is a series of x-ray pictures of the ureter & bladder. Urinalysis examines the physical color, microscopic, and chemical appearance of urine. Urine cytology is the examination of cells in urine. Through these tests, doctors can determine if the patient has Bladder Cancer.
The treatment for Bladder Cancer is based on which stage of cancer the patient has. For Stage 0 and 1, which is a tumor in the transitional cells or lining of the bladder, a simply Transurethral Resection of the Bladder (TURB) can be done, which is the removal of the tumor through surgery. Chemotherapy and immunotherapy are also options. For Stage 2 or 3 Bladder Cancer, which is bladder cancer between the lining of the bladder and muscle area, there are many options. One option is radical cystecomy, which is removal of the bladder through surgery or partial removal of the bladder followed by chemotherapy and radiation. Before surgery, chemotherapy can be used to try to shrink the tumor. Chemotherapy and radiation is also an option for patients who choose not to do surgery. Unfortunately, Stage 4 Bladder Cancer is usually incurable.

Here is a powerpoint on Bladder Cancer.
The words in RED are what I would say during the presentation.

Bladder Cancer

View more presentations from shelbs531.

Here are the information & picture sources:

Web Sources (information):
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001517
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/bladder/Patient
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bladder-cancer/DS00177
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/bladder_cancer/article_em.htm
http://www.medicinenet.com/bladder_cancer/article.htm
http://www.urologychannel.com/bladdercancer/overview-of-bladder-cancer.shtml
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/bladdercancer.html
http://blcwebcafe.org/
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/bladder-cancer
http://www.acancer.net/bladder_cancer/stage1.php
http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Orphan_designation/2009/10/WC500006117.pdf
http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/type/bladder-cancer/about/types-of-bladder-cancer
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/path/urinary/uroth4.cfm

BSCS Biology Textbook

Picture sources:
http://www.mountnittany.org/wellness-library/healthsheets/documents?ID=6786
https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb0Qz9deUTbkDWCB-D4uBLz3LpSo-qW52MXuwXy_KecBSdQhlmaITh1071wGk3LzbsbR-HNVYX6YJ8HcLxq61-NLm-4bfCHEnYOidalA_g1rVCZwK28qZz2d1GzIrNeTqs_mb4VKY3o_8/s1600-h/drink+pee+repeat.jpg
http://www.zazzle.com/pee_on_bladder_cancer_poster-228150471902362783
http://www.personalizedcause.com/shop/collections/knowmore/magnets/classic/detail/yellow.html



Hope you learned a lot!!!!

Photosynthesis is Awesome

Plants are autotrophs. This means that to create energy, they use the sunlight. They make energy by using energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from the environment around them, and water from the air and from the ground. In return, they create glucose which they can convert into different kinds of energy.  They also create oxygen which allows organisms to exist. In the light reaction, plants create NADPH and ATP which is energy that can be used to fuel the Calvin Cycle. Oxygen is created in the light reaction, and is one of the final products of photosynthesis. In the Calvin Cycle, three 5 carbon sugars called RuBp joins with 3 Carbon dioxides which have 1 carbon each. 3 RuBp + 3 C02= 18 Carbons. When they join with the help of rubisco, an enzyme, they create three 6 carbon sugars but instantaneously convert into six 3 carbon sugars because three 6 carbon sugars is very unstable. 6 ATP and 6 NADPH (from the Light Reaction) add to the six 3 carbon sugars. They then "give away" three carbons to create a PGAL on the side. It then continues to rearrange into 3 RuBP (with the help of ATP.) In conclusion, 3 C02 create 1 PGAL. 2 PGALs are needed to create glucose (6 carbon sugar.) So inorder to create glucose, the goal of photosynthesis, the cycle must be repeated twice.
The formula for photosynthesis is 3Co2 + 6H20-> C6H1206 + 602

^^Follow along with the sketchfu I made below
Enjoy :)



Learn how to draw cartoons, comics, and anime at Sketchfu!

"They (plants) produce more than 90 billion metric tons each of organic matter and oxygen gas"
(BSCS Biology textbook page 121)
Everytime we take a deep breath in, we should thank plants for creating oxygen for us!

One factor that I think may influence the rate of photosynthesis is the environment. Depending on what kind of environment a plant lives in, the rate of diffusion can be larger or smaller. 
Another factor that I think may influence the rate of photosynthesis is temperature. I predict that how much oxygen a plant can produce will depend on the temperature that is in.

Cellular Respiration

            Before we embarked on this journey, called Cellular Respiration, I remember my terrified classmates and myself dreading this unit. Mrs. McCurdy had warned us about the confusing and intrinsic process of cellular respiration. As we would soon find out, she had been right. During the first few days of this material, our classroom was mayhem. Every student in Honors Biology was ferociously jotting down what felt like every word Mrs. McCurdy would say, in fear of missing a key reaction. However, after gaining a firmer grasp on the material, everyone could recite processes of Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain backwards!

            Although understanding the process of Cellular Respiration is an extensive and daunting task, it’s certainly possible. I created posters and a catchy song to help understand it better. Ultimately, I unfortunately didn’t record the song myself, in fear of public humiliation (I’m not the best singer…) Luckily, my sister, Sammy, was able to step up to the task. To the tune of Katy Perry’s hit, “I Kissed a Girl,” my song entitled “Cellular Respiration” explains the 3 main steps of Cellular Respiration. After recording the song, I created a “Jing” including digital pictures of my posters and my song. I then uploaded my Jing to my Bio Blog. Underneath are the lyrics, so feel free to sing along!

Approximate Lyrics (note: some words were switched around during the recording):

In order, to get energy,

For things like watching tv,

We use the mitochondria,

We rely on cellular respiration,

It’s so confusing,

Only pros can sing about it,

You should really know all about it,

In order to ace your test!

Glycolysis,

starts with a glucose,

A 6 carbon sugar,

But before we, knew it,

ATP had phosphoralted,

And the whole thing broke apart,

Into two PGALs

It still wasn’t happy,

It had to take some time to think,

Each PGAL lost its phosphate,

Rearranged intoooo a pyruvate!

To do this,

2ADPs turned into ATP!

2NAD+ turned into NADH!

And we are left with a pyruvate,

If we have oxygen,

Then we will go to the Krebs Cycle,

But if we don’t,

I guess we’ll just ferment,

Anaerobic fermentation,

Is kind of a drag cause we only make 2ATPs,

But that’s just life,

So lets just move on,

To the krebs cycle!

Next step in aerobic respiration,

We bring our pyruvates over to the matrix!

We lose NADH  and CO2,

Acetyl CoA helps bring the pyrvuate in,

Oxaloacetate + 2carbon join together!

We lose CO2 and NADH,

So it becomes a 5 carbon sugar,

And then it does again,

It becomes a 4 carbon sugar,

And creates ATP!

We then release NADH and FADH2,

And then we are just oxaloacetate!

The Electron Transport Chain,

NADH turns into NAD+

And FADH2 turns into FADH

Which makes H+ and E-,

The E- fuel the stair case across the cytochromes,

And for each cytochrome pumps one H+ into the matrix,

The H+ pump across the ATP synthase,

Which brings together lonely ADP and P’s!!!

The H+, E- and 02 come together,

To make WATER!

**********

I don't own this song, I used it from this youtube:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iJYxAIGriTw

The song in the background is the acoustic version of "I Kissed a Girl" by Katy Perry!

No copyright intended.